How to Read and Understand a Difficult Book or Chapter

Weve all encountered chapters or books that we just cant get into or we dont understand. There are lots of reasons for this: sometimes were required to read about a topic that is just plain boring, sometimes we try to read material that is written way above our current reading level, and sometimes we find that the writer is just plain bad at explaining things. It happens. If you find yourself reading an entire chapter or book several times without understanding it, try taking the following steps. Be sure to do steps 1 to 3 before you jump in to read the text. Difficulty: Hard Time Required: Differs by length of written material What You Need: A difficult book or passageNote paperPencilSticky note flagsQuiet room How to Do It 1. Read the introduction and reflect.  Any nonfiction article or book will have an introductory section that gives an overview of the main points. Read this first, then stop, think, and soak it in.Reason: All textbooks on a certain topic are not created equal! Every writer has a certain theme or point of view, and that will be introduced in your introduction. Its important to understand this theme or focus  because it will help you to recognize why certain examples or comments appear in your reading. 2. Look at the sub-headings. Most books or chapters will progress in some manner, whether they show a progression of time or an evolution of ideas. Look over the topics and try to find the pattern.Reason: Writers begin the writing process with an outline. The subheadings or subtitles you see in your text show you how the author started when organizing his/her thoughts. Subtitles show the overall subject broken down into smaller segments which are arranged in the most logical progression.   3. Read the summary and reflect.  Right after you read the introduction and subheadings, flip to the back of the chapter and read the summary.Reason: The summary  should re-state the points that were mentioned in the introduction. (If they dont, then this really is a difficult book to understand!) This reiteration of the main points may offer the material in more depth or from a different viewpoint. Read this section, then stop and soak it in. 4. Read the material. Now that youve had time to understand the points the author is trying to convey, youre more apt to recognize them when they come along. When you see a major point, flag it with a sticky note.   5. Take notes. Take notes and, if possible, make a brief outline as you read. Some people like to underline words or points in pencil. Only do this if you own the book. 6. Watch for lists. Always look for code words that tell you a list is coming. If you see a passage that says There were three major effects of this event, and they all impacted the political climate, or something similar, you can be sure there is a list following. The effects will be listed, but they may be separated by many paragraphs, pages, or chapters. Always find them and make note of them. 7. Look up words you dont understand. Dont be in a rush! Stop whenever you see a word that you cant immediately define in your own words.Reason: One word can indicate the entire tone or view of the piece. Dont try to guess the meaning. That can be dangerous! Make sure to look up the definition. 8. Keep on plugging through. If youre following the steps but you still dont seem to be soaking in the material, just keep reading. Youll surprise yourself. 9. Go back and hit the highlighted points. Once you get to the end of the piece, go back and review the notes youve made. Look over the important words, points, and lists.Reason: Repetition is the key to retaining information. 10. Review the introduction and summary. When you do, you may find that youve absorbed more than you realized. Tips Dont be hard on yourself. If this is hard for you, its probably just as hard for other students in your class.Dont try to read in a noisy environment. That might be ok under other circumstances, but its not a good idea when attempting difficult reading.Talk to others who are reading the same material.You can always join the homework forum and ask advice from others.Dont give up!

Machines can be conscious - 1605 Words

R.Yusuf Akbal 210112409 03.05.2013 Can machines be conscious? Can machines be conscious? Well, the answer actually depends on the kind of machines you are talking about. Based on quite a few instances and research work done on this particular topic, I think that the machines can indeed be categorized as conscious beings and in the following paragraphs I will be providing a couple of examples in order to support my argument. If we look at the definition of consciousness, which implies that ‘one has to be aware of all its surroundings and wellbeing’ then machines can certainly not be conscious; as they have all the operations and data already programmed in them by some external forces and are only aware of those situations which have†¦show more content†¦Another example quoted by Harnad (Harnad, 1991) is that, whenever we dream, we are apparently disconnected from the world, our muscles get stable and paralyzed and we are cut-off from the whole environment. However, we are still conscious as we are conscious about the functions and sounds performing inside and outside the body, and our body would respond when it is touched or forced to move. Sensory perceptions would be always there. This reflects machines as being conscious. Neurological evidence points out that people who lose their eye sights accidently or by birth can certainly dream and imagine about things. Consciousness does not require interaction with the environment. This means that interaction, awareness, and emotions do not always fall in the category of consciousness. In this way, machines can be conscious if they acquire just few aspects (Shear, 1997). One of the examples that support my argument that the machines can be conscious is the example of a sheep that was genetically made by human beings using the genes and DNA of an original sheep. That was actually a machine as it was synthetically made by human beings, but it had the ability to survive, produce heat, think, and do all the activities that an original sheep is capable of doing. So this machine comes under the category of being conscious. Dolly sheep was made on 5th July 1996 with the help of cloned embryo and DNA of another naturally produced sheep. She was also aShow MoreRelatedAn Aristotelian Theory Of Consciousness1646 Words   |  7 PagesVictorian automatons, to our more recent fancies- computers, robots and other Turing machines. Perhaps the reason for this preoccupation with artificial intelligence is actually a quest to better understand our own consciousness. At first sight, the question â€Å"Can a machine be conscious?† appears deceptively simple. However, the answer to this question is entirely dependent on how we define consciousness. We can embark by defining consciousness in an Aristotelian fashion- by its function. 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A Report on Alkaline Cells

Question: Discuss about the A Report on Alkaline Cells. Answer: Introduction Lew Urry developed the alkaline-manganese cell, at the Eveready Battery CompanyLaboratory in Parma, Ohio in 1949 (Aifantis, Hackney Kumar 2010, p. 36). The development of the alkaline cells stemmed from the idea that it was able to supply more total energy at elevated currents compared to the Leclanch cells that were majorly used at that time. Over the years, increased technological discoveries and advancements have led to further improvements by increasing the energy storage within a particular size package. A year later, an independent inventor called Samuel Ruben developed the zinc-mercuric oxide alkaline cell that later became Duracell. Duracell was licensed to the P.R. Mallory Co. Since that time; mercury compounds have been eliminated from the cells to minimize environmental pollution and risks. The alkaline cell is ideal for applications that require high voltages and high current continuous discharge, such as high power remote control, camera, electric toy, electric shaver, flashlight, and CD player. Chemical reaction responsible for electricity production In the alkaline cell, zincis the negative electrode while manganese dioxide is and the positive electrode (Hummel 2011, p. 107). The potassium hydroxide alkaline electrolyte is, however, not part of the reaction since only the manganese dioxide and zinc are consumed during the discharge (Abdullah 2012, p. 229). The potassium hydroxide as an electrolyte does not undergo consumption. The reason is that there are equal amounts of ions of OHproduced and consumed. The equations for the reaction are as shown below. Zn + 2 OH- Zn (OH)2 + 2e- (oxidation) 2 MnO2 + H2O + 2e- Mn2O3 + 2 OH- (reduction) Basic set up of the alkaline cell The basic set up of the alkaline cell is as illustrated in the diagram below. The major components of the cell include the cathode, separator, cathode cap, anode, insulator, anode cap, and anode collector. The working of the alkaline cell The generation of electricity in the alkaline cells is by the redox reaction. In the alkaline cells, power is generated by the reduction-oxidation reaction that takes place at the anode (Zinc) and cathode (Manganese Oxide) through an electrolyte (potassium hydroxide). The redox reaction results in the flow of electrons from the anode (oxidation reaction) to the cathode (reduction reaction) to create a reduction potential of the half-reactions (Linden and Reddy 2002, p. 10.4). The equations for the reactions and the EMF of the alkaline cell The half-equation for the reaction The half-equation for the reaction at the cell is given as Zn(s)+ 2OH(aq) ZnO(s)+ H2O(l)+ 2e[e = 1.28 Volts] (Abdullah 2012, p. 229) 2MnO2(s)+ H2O(l)+ 2e Mn2O3(s)+ 2OH(aq)[e = +0.15 Volts] The complete equation for the reaction The complete equation for the reaction of the cells is expressed as Zn(s)+ 2MnO2(s)+ZnO(s)+ Mn2O3(s)[e = 1.43 Volts] (Linden and Reddy 2002, p. 10.4) The EMF of the cell The EMF of the cell is calculated by adding the half-equations Anode: Zn(s) + 2 OH-(aq) ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e-; [e = 1.28 Volts] Cathode: 2 MnO2(s) + H2O(l) + 2e- Mn2O3(s) + 2 OH-(aq); [e = +0.15 Volts] Overall reaction: Zn(s) + 2 MnO2(s) ZnO(s) + Mn2O3(s) [e = 1.43 Volts] Therefore, the EMF of the cell = 1.28 + 0.15 = 1.43 V The durability of the alkaline cell Alkaline cells last for a long period and have a comparatively long shelf life of at least 2 years during which they can retain about 90% of their original charge capacities. As a result, they have better performance at both high and low temperatures. In addition, there are two types of alkaline batteries available namely premium alkaline and standard alkaline. Advantages and disadvantages of Alkaline Cell Advantages One of the benefits of alkaline cells is reduced costs. Instead of discarding the standard alkaline cells, they can be recharged to save money. In addition, there is less environmental pollution from disposed electrolyte cells due to the reduced mercury content. Secondly, alkaline cells are significantly reliable compared to the nickelcadmium battery since they do not suffer from loss of capacity due to shallow discharges or cell failure due to trickle charging. Thirdly, alkaline cells discharge slowly and consequently have a longer shelf life of characteristically between 2 to 4 years compared to nickelcadmium battery whose shelf life is between 2 to 3 months (Aifantis, Hackney Kumar 2010, p. 37). Therefore, they are appropriate for applications where the appliance requires standby power. Fourthly, alkaline cells have a superior power capacity per cell compared to most standard batteries such as nickelcadmium battery and zinc-carbon battery. Fifthly, the alkaline cell has a higher voltage output (1.5 V) compared to nickelcadmium battery (1.2 V) and this further increases its reliability. Disadvantages On the other hand, alkaline cells have a high internal resistance that impairs their run time and leads to an early low battery warning in most appliances (Doble Schoch, 2008, p 86). Consequently, alkaline cells will not last long in applications that have high start up current demands or even require much power while in use. In addition, rechargeable alkaline cells offer a much lower performance compared to standard alkaline cells although that variance has narrowed these days owing to superior technology and using perfect raw materials for the manufacturing. Secondly, recharging cells can sometimes be irritating and abrupt. However, keeping track of their usage and recharging at standard intervals when not yet fully discharged may greatly help in overcoming this problem. Thirdly, the high cost of the battery charger can be a drawback and a source of convenience. Furthermore, a defective battery chargermay lead to the explosion of the alkaline cells. Fourthly, alkaline cells are bu lkier compared to the other lithium cells that are capable of giving much higher energy. Disposal method/recycling of the used Alkaline Cells Alkaline cells can be disposed of as ordinary wastes in the landfills today owing to the 1996 reduction of the mercury content. Nevertheless, alkaline cells with high amounts of heavy metals such as lead and cadmium, corrosive chemicals, and mercury pose a significant challenge of disposal, particularly in the landfills. The biggest problem is the threat of environmental pollution and the danger imposed on human life, particularly those living or working near the landfills (Bernardes, Espinosa Tenrio 2004, p. 292). The authors argue further that the other methods of disposal of alkaline cells other than landfills are stabilization and incineration. The waste alkaline cells are not regarded as valuable materials. One of the common ways of recycling the alkaline cells is by shredding and separating the zinc and manganese case metals from the other components. Alternatively, the cells can be used as a furnace feedstock in the manufacture of products such as rebar and other low-grade st eel metals. During this process, zinc metal is separated from the furnace components in the form of fumes. Environmental impact of the disposalof Alkaline Cells The extensive use of alkaline cells has resulted in many environmental concerns across the globe. To start with, the disposal of the used alkaline cells as electronic waste leads to pollution by the toxic chemicals and metals such as lead, cadmium, and mercury (Kang, Chen Ogunseitan 2013, p. 5495). Secondly, the manufacturers of the alkaline cells consume the resources such as the metal ores as the primary raw materials, and this leads to environmental degradation due to the resulting landfills and the depletion of the natural resources. For instance in the United States, approximately 3 billion alkaline cells are purchased annually, and an estimated 179,000 tons of the waste alkaline cells end up in landfills throughout the country. Conclusion The alkaline cell is durable, produces much current, have long shelf life, and have a shell that is resistant to corrosion compared to carbon battery. In addition, the alkaline cell uses opposite electrode structure, and this leads to an increased relative volume between the anode and the cathode. Moreover, conductive potassium hydroxide solution replaces both the zinc chloride and ammonium chloride solution to improve the electric properties of the cell. Furthermore, the capacity and discharge time is between 3 to 7 times longer than that of an ordinary battery of the same model. Besides, during the discharge process, the reaction does not produce gas or bubbles, and this leads to a constant voltage. Bibliography Abdullah, M 2012, Applied energy, Boca Raton, FL: Taylor Francis. Aifantis, K, Hackney, S Kumar, R 2010, High energy density lithium batteries, Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. Bernardes, A, Espinosa, D Tenrio, J 2004, Recycling of batteries: a review of current processes and technologies, Journal of Power Sources, 130(1-2), pp. 291-298. Doble, R Schoch, E 2008, The Everything Digital Photography Book: Utilize the latest technology to take professional grade pictures, Avon, Mass.: Adams Media. Hummel, R 2011, Electronic properties of materials, New York: Springer. Kang, D, Chen, M Ogunseitan, O 2013, Potential Environmental and Human Health Impacts of Rechargeable Lithium Batteries in Electronic Waste, Environmental Science Technology, 47(10), pp. 5495-5503. Linden, D Reddy, T 2002, Handbook of batteries, New York: McGraw-Hill.

Norse Mythology free essay sample

Beliefs are a large aspect of humanity, which will often guide the lifestyles of societies and individuals. Regardless whether these beliefs are religious or merely subjective; they hold great significance to their advocates, giving them something to cherish and live by. Since the ancient times, civilisations have been impacted by the beliefs and perspectives of their people. And as historians have discovered, every society—whether it be modern or ancient—has had religious and spiritual influences! As well as the common established religions we have nowadays, people in the ancient world also followed myths and sagas, relative to their culture. Having such beliefs would often provide explanations for inexplicable occurrences and natural phenomena, while giving the people some much-needed incentive. For example: in Greek mythology, there are powerful gods and goddesses controlling just about every facet of lie, as well as the afterlife. Similarly, the Egyptians worshipped their gods and goddesses. We will write a custom essay sample on Norse Mythology or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page And just as the Greek and Egyptian mythologies, Norse mythology—relative to the Vikings—also mentions the significance of their alleged gods and goddesses. Information and knowledge regarding the significance and expertise of these gods can be acquired from the sagas. Odin (Main Article) As determined through historical studies, runes and sagas, the Vikings, like many ancient and modern civilisations, worshipped several gods and goddesses and had unique beliefs of their own. Amongst all of the Viking gods, Odin is one of the few, still well-known today. Being a foremost member of ? sir, as well as the ruler of Asgard—the Viking heaven; home of the Norse gods—Odin was one of the more prominent gods in Norse mythology. His old-Norse name, Odinn, is now acknowledged as an official, valid religion throughout the several countries of Scandinavia, where the Vikings had inflicted their culture! Unknown author(s), 2013: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Odin Odin is a god of war, death and victory; but also, the god of poetry and wisdom. And for this wisdom, he’s thought to have traded one of his eyes, in order to be granted a drink from the Well of Wisdom! Since then, he’s gained vast knowledge, though having to suffer and live with only one eye! In most depictions and sagas, Odin is closely accompanied by his prized spear, Gungir; the two trusted wolves who helped him keep watch over the cosmos, and his eight-legged steed, Sleipnir. His spear—one of a kind—never missed a target! * His wolves: close allies. He always fed them his own meals, choosing to live on nothing but wine. Lindemans M. F. , 2005: http://www. pantheon. org/articles/o/odin. html Saldais M. , Smith R. , 2012: Oxford Big Ideas History 8, page 76 Odin, being a mythical figure, has several illogical sagas suggesting this beginning an end. For example: In some alternative sagas, he’s said to have been exiled from Asgard by the other gods , despite being its ruler.